Anyone who has studied German, Latin, Russian, Classical Greek or Sanskrit, is familiar with the concept of Case. Case generally refers to a morphological scheme in which a noun, whether via internal mutation of its phonemes or via affixes, shows what grammatical “role” it plays in the phrase or sentence in which it appears. For example, in the English sentence It was me she saw, the use of the word ‘she’ as opposed to ‘her’ and the use of ‘me’ as opposed to ‘I’ distinguishes the subject of the sentence (the person seeing) from the object of the verb (the one being seen). Similarly, in the German sentence Der Bruder des Knaben sah den Mann (= ‘The boy’s brother saw the man’), the words ‘der’, ‘des’ and ‘den’ distinguish the subject of the sentence ‘brother’ (nominative case) from the possessor ‘boy’ (genitive case) from the object ‘man’ (accusative case).

The concept of “case” can extend far beyond the notions of subject, object and possessor. Depending on the particular language, there may be noun cases which specify the location or position of a noun, whether a noun accompanies another or derives from another or is the recipient of another. In general, noun cases in those languages which rely upon them often substitute for what in English is accomplished using prepositions or prepositional phrases. The process of adding affixes or changing the phonetic structure of a word in order to show a noun in a particular case is known as declining a noun, and the various permutations of a noun into its cases are known as its declensions.

The Transrelative cases refer to eleven cases used to identify nouns functioning as participants to a verb, what in Western grammatical terms would be referred to as “subjects” and “objects” and most likely marked as either nominative, accusative, or dative. It is these cases which more or less correspond to the semantic roles identified in Sec. 4.1 above. The eleven transrelative cases are the OBLIQUE, ABSOLUTIVE, DATIVE, ERGATIVE, EFFECTUATIVE, INDUCIVE, AFFECTIVE, INSTRUMENTAL, ACTIVATIVE, DERIVATIVE, and SITUATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case.

Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided in Section 4.3.12.

The OBLIQUE case is marked by the Vc value -a-. As described above in Section 4.1.2, the OBLIQUE identifies the semantic role of CONTENT, whether it is something given to a RECIPIENT, or the non-causal abstract content of an experiential state, e.g., a memory recalled, something desired, something feared. It would thus be used in translating sentences such as Sam gave me a book, The child likes cereal. It is also the case associated with existential identification, what in English would be the subject of the verb ‘to be’ when referring to the intrinsic identity or static description of a noun as in the English sentences That boy is blind or The house was built of wood. The OBLIQUE, being the semantically most neutral case, is also the citation form of a noun (i.e., the form in which the noun would be listed in a dictionary).

• Like the ideal form of noun without any prefix or suffix ,

The INDUCIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u-. The INDUCIVE identifies a noun which undergoes a self-initiated action, i.e., the noun is a PATIENT of an agential action in which the AGENT and the PATIENT are the same. Note that this does not necessarily imply reflexive action (i.e., doing something to oneself). It would be used in sentences such as The boy jumped, He sang, The dog barked all night, or She danced to the music, in which the party initiating and performing the action are one and the same. ,

The ABSOLUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e-. As described in Section 4.1.1 above, the ABSOLUTIVE identifies the semantic role of PATIENT of an agential action, where the agent-initiator is a different party than the patient who undergoes the resulting action. Note that in sentences with patient subjects, the agent or instrument of agency need not be overtly expressed. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ABSOLUTIVE would be The boy hit the girl, She forced him to do it, The bird fell from the sky, The prisoner died during the gun battle.

• the girl.

The ERGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o-. The ERGATIVE identifies the semantic role of AGENT, i.e., a noun which initiates a tangible action undergone by another party (the PATIENT), as described in Section 4.1.1. Note that sentences involving an ERGATIVE agent need not overtly express the patient noun. Examples of English sentences translatable using the ERGATIVE would be The boy hit the girl, She forced him to do it, That murderer kills for fun.

The EFFECTUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ö-. The EFFECTUATIVE identifies the noun acting in the semantic role of ENABLER, as described in Section 4.1.2 above. This is the noun which initiates a causal chain of events, ultimately resulting in a final event. An example would be pulling out the plug of a filled bathtub thereby causing it to empty. This case should therefore be carefully distinguished from the ERGATIVE case. Ergatively marked nouns imply that the action undergone by the patient is the same action directly initiated by the agent, whereas EFFECTUATIVE nouns imply a chain or series of cause-and-effect actions. For example, in the Ithkuil translation of the sentence The clown emptied the blood from the tub, the clown could be marked either as an AGENT by means of the ERGATIVE case, or as an ENABLER using the EFFECTUATIVE case. The former would mean the clown poured out the blood himself, while the latter would mean he let it drain (i.e., by pulling the plug). Such case distinctions eliminate the need for Ithkuil to have separate verbs for ‘to drain,’ ‘to pour’ or ‘to empty.’ The Ithkuil verb used in translating the sentence would simply mean ‘to remove.’

Note that the EFFECTUATIVE case is commonly used with the ENB affix -ls to show the degree or nature of the enabling cause. With this suffix, sentences can be produced which specify whether the enablement is via giving of consent or permission, by persuasion, by subtle indirect influence, by removal of a hindrance, or even by inaction.

The AFFECTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i-. The AFFECTIVE denotes a noun whose semantic role is that of EXPERIENCER, as described previously in Section 4.1.2, the noun which undergoes a non-causal, non-initiated (and unwilled) experiential state, whether internally autonomic in nature or as the result of an external stimulus. Examples of such states would be automatic sensory experience; autonomic bodily reactions such as yawning, sneezing, coughing, blinking, itching, feeling sleepy, pain, feeling ill, feeling cold or warm; automatic reactions to external stimuli such as shock, flinching, ducking, raising one’s arms to avoid sudden danger; as well as any unwilled emotional state such as love, hate, fear, anger, surprise, joy, wistfulness, shyness, regret, anxiety, etc.

Example sentences requiring the use of the AFFECTIVE case would be The baby is coughing, The lightning startled her, Mortimer loves his vittles, Uncle Davey slept till noon, My back itches me.

Note that if the experiential state is willfully brought about by the noun undergoing it, the INDUCIVE case would be used, since the noun is deliberately initiating an action in order to induce the experiential state. For example, compare the sentence The children smiled with glee (marked using the AFFECTIVE) with The children smiled on cue (marked using the INDUCIVE).

,

The DATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü- or, if the Cr root ends in a -w or -y, it is marked by the Vc value -ae’-. The DATIVE has two functions in Ithkuil. Similarly to Western languages, it marks indirect objects of verbs of giving and telling, i.e., the semantic role of RECIPIENT of a noun transferred via an act of giving, donation, lending, or other transference of possession, or the hearer to who something is said, told, recounted, etc, as described in Section 4.1.2 above. Secondly, like some Western languages (e.g., Russian), Ithkuil uses a dative construction in lieu of any verb ‘to have’ in reference to possession or attribution. It would therefore be used in translating sentences such as We're giving you a present, Jason lent a dollar to his sister, Please grant me a wish, The student has three books, Those mountains have a mysterious quality.

The INSTRUMENTAL case is marked by the Vc value -ai-. As described previously in Section 4.1.1, the INSTRUMENTAL denotes a noun which functions as the INSTRUMENT or means utilized by an AGENT in accomplishing an action or bringing about a state. It is usually translated by English ‘with.’ Examples of usage would be She killed him with a knife, The man tripped over my foot, The password got him inside. The INSTRUMENTAL is also used to mark translations of an inanimate “subject” noun when its logical function is as the instrument of an unstated agent, e.g., compare I pressed the button with my finger with My finger pressed the button, both of which would be identical in Ithkuil except for the latter sentence’s missing agent, I.

Note that the INSTRUMENTAL does not translate ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘along with’ or ‘accompanied by’ (see the COMITATIVE case below in Sec. 4.5.20) as in She arrived with her father. Nor is it used to show the resources or materials consumed in performing an act. For example, in the sentence He cooks with tomatoes (see the COMPOSITIVE case in Sec. 4.5.3), it is not the tomatoes that cook the food, therefore the INSTRUMENTAL would not be used, whereas in He fueled the fire with wood it is the wood that fuels the fire, thus requiring the INSTRUMENTAL case.

The ACTIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei-. The ACTIVATIVE identifies a noun engaged in or subject to a mental or metaphysical state which, as a concurrent result, creates a hypothetical, “unrealized” situation which can potentially be made real by further action. Such unrealized situations can be illustrated by the sentence Frank must go to Chicago, in which no actual travel to Chicago has occurred and, in fact, may not occur. Similarly, in the sentence Mother needs to rest, no resting has yet occurred and may not. In both sentences, the event which would “fulfill” the state described remains an unrealized hypothetical, at least from the perspective of the speaker. Similar hypothetical events or states are found in the sentences The students want you to sing, Everyone expected you to laugh, or Joe will demand that I stay. Note that many of these constructions in English involve the use of “modal” verbs such as want, need, can, must, etc.

Notice that the subject of these English sentences (Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) are functioning neither as AGENTS nor PATIENTS, since the modal verbs of which they are the subject do not identify as-yet actualized events, only states of unrealized potential. These subjects are essentially EXPERIENCERS undergoing a mental or metaphysical state of wanting, needing, obligation, expectation, hoping, wishing, being able to, etc. However, such experiencers must be differentiated from would-be experiencers “within” the hypothetical situation. For example, in the sentence Sam wants Shirley to love him, it could become ambiguous if Sam and Shirley are both marked as EXPERIENCERS using the AFFECTIVE case. Consequently, Ithkuil uses the ACTIVATIVE case to mark the subject whose mental or metaphysical state creates a concurrent hypothetical, as-yet unrealized situation. All of the subjects in the example sentences from the previous paragraph (i.e., Frank, Mother, the students, everyone, Joe) would be so marked. In Section 6.1 we will see how the ACTIVATIVE is used in conjunction with a morphological category for verbs termed Modality to create such hypothetical states and situations.

The DERIVATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui-. The DERIVATIVE serves two functions in Ithkuil. Firstly, it identifies an inanimate FORCE of nature (as described in Sec. 4.1.1) or abstract causative situation which causes a PATIENT noun to undergo an action, as in The wind blew down the door, or Fame threatened his freedom. The use of the DERIVATIVE instead of the ERGATIVE or the EFFECTUATIVE denotes that such inanimate agential forces or abstract enabling situations cannot consciously or willingly initiate actions, but rather are merely circumstantial initiating causes. Therefore the resulting act, event, or state is seen more as having derived from this force or situation, as opposed to being willfully or consciously caused. In this function, a noun in the DERIVATIVE can often be translated using phrases such as ‘due to, owing to, on account of, because of, as a result of.’ Nouns in the DERIVATIVE can also appear in appositive constructions (i.e., in a noun-to-noun conjunction) where the noun in the DERIVATIVE denotes the abstract cause or reason for the other noun, e.g., the danger of fame, love’s heartache, wind song.

The second function of the DERIVATIVE case is to identify the non-agential, unconscious or non-deliberate STIMULUS of an affective mental state, emotion, or autonomic sensory experience, as in The coffee smells good, I saw her today, She hates that boy, Victor coughed from the gas, We laughed at his jokes, That song makes me cry. Ithkuil grammar views the stimulus of an experiential state as having a similar role to that of an abstract circumstantial or situational cause (as in the above examples); this explains why the DERIVATIVE case serves to indicate both functions.

The SITUATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi-. The SITUATIVE identifies a noun as the background context for a clause. It is similar to the DERIVATIVE case immediately above, except it does not imply a direct causative relationship between the background context and the act, condition, or event which occurs. It is translatable into English by various circumlocutions, as shown in the following examples:

Because of war, our planet will never be able to join the Federation. Given the presence of clowns, we must accept the corruption of our children. Using my plan, we will defeat the enemy.

The following are examples of various Ithkuil sentences showing how assigning different transrelative cases to the noun participants (i.e., the arguments to the verb) allows for various changes in meaning, regardless of argument structure. As can be seen, the English translations of many of these sentences often require word order changes, word-substitution, even outright paraphrase, all in order to accommodate the constraints on English argument structure.

Roots used: -zb- informal Pattern 1, Stem 1 ‘anger; be angry/feel anger’ -kš- formal Pattern 1, Stem 2 ‘clown’

Those Western languages which have possessive cases usually have only one such case, often functioning in a vague and ambiguous way to show varying types of relationships between two nouns. For example, notice the differing relationships expressed by the possessive in the following English sentences:

• the man’s hat = the hat belonging to him [alienable possession]
• मेरी टोपी / उस आदमी की टोपी = टोपी जो उसकी हैं
• the man’s house = the house he legally owns [proprietary responsibility]
• मेरा घर / उस आदमी का घर = घर जो उसकी अमानत हैं
• the man’s arm = part of his body [inalienable component]
• मेरा हाथ / उस आदमी का हाथ = उसके शरीर का भाग
• the man’s brother = the brother related to him [genetic relationship]
• मेरा भाई / उस आदमी का भाई = भाई जिससे उसका रिश्ता हैं
• the man’s happiness = he feels happy [affective experience]
• मेरी खुशी / उस आदमी की खुशी =
• the man’s rescue = he was or will be rescued [target of others’ purpose]
• the man’s gift = the gift is for him [benefaction]
• मेरा तोफ़ा / उस आदमी का तोफा = तोफा जो उसके लिए हैं
• the man’s gift = the gift is from him [source]
• मेरा तोफ़ा = तोफा जो उसने दिया हैं
• the man’s world = the world in which he lives [inherent subjective association]
• उस आदमी की दुनिया = वह दुनिया जिसमें वह जीता हैं
• the man’s team = the team he is associated with [interactive mutual association]
• the man’s story = the story about him [topical reference]
• उस आदमी की कहानी = कहानी जो उसके बारे में हैं
• the man’s painting = the picture he painted [creation/authorship]
• उस आदमी का। चित्र = वह चित्र जो उस आदमी ने बनाई हैं
• the man’s command = his being a commander [role or function]

In many instances, the English possessive is totally ambiguous, e.g., does ‘the man’s story’ mean the one he wrote or the one about him? Regarding ‘the man’s rescue,’ did the man do the rescuing or is he the one being rescued? Is ‘the man’s gift’ one he is giving or receiving? Ithkuil is more exact in specifying the nature of these relationships via case. Many of the above relationships are addressed by the seven Possessive cases.

The Possessive cases make a distinction between alienable versus inalienable possession or attribution, as well as distinguishing whether the possession is inherent to the possessor or imposed or caused from without. These distinctions are explained below. Like Western languages (and unlike many American Indian and North Caucasian languages), the case marking is on the possessor noun, not the possessed. The seven Associative cases are the POSSESSIVE, PROPRIETIVE, GENITIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, PRODUCTIVE, INTERPRETATIVE, and ORIGINATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.4.8.

The POSSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â-. The POSSESSIVE is used to refer to a noun which has alienable (i.e., removable or severable) possession of another noun in the sense of having physical control or oversight of that noun, whether by chance circumstance or deliberate manipulation. The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another and the relationship between the two can be theoretically or actually terminated by an outside force or influence, or by decision of the possessor, usually by means of mere physical permanent separation of the possessor and possessed nouns. The possessive would be used to translate English phrases such as his coat (e.g., the one he is wearing, regardless of whether he owns it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., the one in his hand), Father’s chair (e.g., the one he happens to be sitting in, as in a restaurant).

The PROPRIETIVE case is marked by the Vc value -î- or alternately -û-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -î-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -û-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PROPRIETIVE identifies a noun having alienable possession of another noun in the sense of quasi-permanent contextual control, ownership or oversight, whether by societal recognition, social convention, law, purchase or decree, which mere physical separation does not sever. The two nouns are not in any sense inherent parts of one another, however the relationship cannot be terminated except via an equally or more binding act, declaration, convention, law, process, etc. Using the same English examples used with the POSSESSIVE above, we can analyze the connotative difference: his coat (i.e., the one he owns, regardless of whether he is wearing it or not), the boy’s book (e.g., the one he bought), Father’s chair (e.g., the one assigned to him).

The GENITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê-. The GENITIVE is used to refer to a noun which has inalienable (i.e., unremovable, unseverable) possession of or association with another noun in the sense of having that noun as an inherent or intrinsic attribute, characteristic, physical part, or genetic (i.e., familial) bond, e.g., my hand, the building’s doors, the child’s father, the essence of that woman.

The ATTRIBUTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô-. The ATTRIBUTIVE is used to refer to a noun which inalienably experiences the effects of, or otherwise has an affective (see the AFFECTIVE case above) relationship with another noun, either as a temporary or permanent attribute, characteristic, or experience, whether physical or psychological, objective or subjective in nature. Examples: his pain, Mother’s guilt, the child’s cough, Dorothy’s mood, Davey’s happiness, the teacher’s stubbornness, my needs.

The PRODUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi-. The PRODUCTIVE identifies the creator, author or originator of another noun, e.g., the girl’s poem, the clowns’ plan, my statue (i.e., the one I sculpted).

The INTERPRETATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öi-. The INTERPRETATIVE identifies a noun acting as the subjective interpretational context of another noun, that is the noun by or through which another noun is subjectively interpreted or described, as exemplified by the phrases Monet’s Paris, our world, life as seen by children.

The ORIGINATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ae-. The ORIGINATIVE identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative source of another, or which is the native location, origin, or usual locational context for another. , e.g., the man’s story (i.e., the one he told), our gift (i.e., the one we are giving), water from the river, the fruit of the tree, Fix the kitchen sink! (i.e. the one found in the kitchen), Desert rocks are so beautiful (i.e., whether being spoken about rocks taken from the desert or rocks still present in the desert), Northern women are easy-going.

The ORIGINATIVE should be distinguished from the ABLATIVE in Section 4.7.5 below, in that the ABLATIVE position or path of motion away from, whereas the ORIGINATIVE merely presents a locational context as a means of description or to distinguish the noun from an otherwise similar noun.

The Associative cases refer to a large group of cases which modify a noun to show that it has some relationship to another, usually adjacent noun or that it functions in an adverbial relationship to a verb. Most of these cases correspond to relationships in which, in English translation, we find two nouns together in apposition or as a compound noun, as in cat box, schoolbook, peace march, mountain man, etc., or joined by the word ‘of’ in a non-possessive relationship, e.g., box of coins, dreams of youth, sounds of laughter, or as a modifier of a verbal phrase. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of the cases in use are given in Sec. 4.5.33 .

4.5.1 PAR The Partitive Case

The PARTITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ia- or -ua-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ia-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ua-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. When used in conjunction with another noun, the PARTITIVE indicates a quantitative or content-to-container relationship between the two nouns, e.g., a cup of coffee, a box(ful) of books, a train(load) of refugees. When used alone, it signifies that the context of the phrase or sentence involves only a portion of the noun, rather than the whole noun, e.g., I ate some bread, Pour (some) water down my back.

The PARTITIVE is also used to mark a noun qualified by a specific number, e.g., three boxes, two clowns, twenty words. This usage is analyzed in detail in Chapter 12, where we will see that, in Ithkuil, numbers are formatives (i.e., full nouns and verbs), not adjectives as in Western languages. Additionally, a noun qualified by a number is not pluralized. In other words, one does not say ‘three boxes,’ but rather “a trio of a box” or perhaps more eloquently, “a box trio.”

The PARTITIVE case is also used in constructing words for Ithkuil numbers beginning with two hundred. This is also detailed in Chapter 12 on enumeration.

4.5.2 CRS The Contrastive Case

The CONTRASTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ie- or -ue-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -ie-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -ue-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The CONTRASTIVE identifies a noun which has been replaced by another or for which another noun has been substituted. This is translatable by the English phrases ‘instead of’ or ‘rather than’ or ‘as opposed to,’ or specialized uses of ‘not,’ e.g., Instead of rain, it snowed; They hired her as a cook, as opposed to a maid; I prefer peas to carrots; Rather than marigolds, let’s buy carnations; That's sugar, not salt.

4.5.3 CPS The Compositive Case

The COMPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -io- or -uo-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -io-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uo-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The COMPOSITIVE identifies a noun as being the literal or figurative substance or component(s) of which another is made, composed, formed, built or comprised. Example of usage would be That statue was carved out of marble, She owns three gold(en) coins, We were caught in a web of lies, I use a wooden ladder, It was a house of cards, Three suits comprise his wardrobe, Joe detests styrofoam cups.

The COMPOSITIVE is also used in conjunction with verbs to identify the material(s) or resources used up or consumed in performing or undertaking an activity. Examples of this usage would be She likes to cook with tomatoes, He reads by candle(light), That child goes through four sets of clothes a day, My uncle satisfied his sweet tooth with three chocolate bars.

4.5.4 PRD The Predicative Case

The PREDICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iö- or -uö-; following Cr stems ending in -w, the Vc value is -iö-, while following Cr stems ending in -y, the Vc value is -uö-; after other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. The PREDICATIVE identifies a noun which constitutes the non-causal basis, foundation, sustenance (literally or figuratively), or required existential condition for another noun or clause, translatable by the phrases ‘based (up)on,’ ‘dependent (up)on’ or ‘relying on.’ Examples of use are a book dependent on a publisher, a man relying on charity, laws based in reason, Can success supported by murder be sustained?

The PREDICATIVE should be distinguished from Transrelative cases such as the DERIVATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL, in that the PREDICATIVE does not denote a cause, merely the sustaining entity on which another depends, e.g., it would not be used to translate anxiety based on terror, as the anxiety does not ‘rely’ or ‘depend’ on terror, but rather is caused by it. Similarly, in the phrase an attitude fueled by greed, the attitude derives from or results from greed, but is not relying on it.

4.5.5 MED The Mediative Case

The MEDIATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’-. The MEDIATIVE indicates the physical, psychological, or figurative medium through which another noun or event takes place. It would be used in translating phrases or sentences such as a radio announcement, arrival by water, a letter bomb, air mail, achieving ecstasy through sex, I showed her my love with chocolate. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL case (see Section 4.3.8 above), which signifies the actual instrument or physical means used to accomplish a causative action. For example, in the sentence Call him on the phone!, translating the phrase on the phone into the INSTRUMENTAL case would signify ‘Use the phone (i.e., the one in the room) to call him,’ whereas inflection into the MEDIATIVE case would mean ‘Call him via the medium of telephony.’

4.5.6 APL The Applicative Case

The APPLICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’-. The APPLICATIVE identifies a noun which represents the purpose for which another noun is to be utilized in a given instance. As such, it usually translates English ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the temporary or incidental use/purpose of.’ Examples of usage would be a cup for coffee (i.e., a cup being used incidentally to hold coffee), a box for tools (i.e., the box is only temporarily being used to hold tools), a room for changing. Note that the use of the APPLICATIVE can extend to usages beyond English ‘for,’ as in a “weapon” cat = ‘a cat used as a weapon,’ or a “projectile” book = ‘a book used as a projectile.’

4.5.7 The Purposive Case

The PURPOSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’-. The PURPOSIVE identifies a noun which characterizes or defines the purpose of, or reason for, another noun. The PURPOSIVE is subtly distinct from the APPLICATIVE above, in that the latter names the actual use to which a noun is put on a given occasion or in given context, whereas the PURPOSIVE defines another noun’s general function or primary reason for being, outside of any contextual instance, i.e., what the noun is used for all the time (or at least its intended use). It generally translates English ‘as,’ ‘of’ or ‘for’ when meaning ‘for the purpose of’ or alternately an English noun-noun expression or a compound noun. Examples of usage would be a coffee cup, a toolbox, a litter box, a trashcan.

4.5.8 CSD The Considerative Case

The CONSIDERATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’-. The CONSIDERATIVE identifies a noun as the delimiting or defining context in which an act, state or event occurs or is considered. Thus, it translates English terms such as ‘according to,’ ‘pursuant to,’ ‘as per,’ ‘in the opinion of.’ Examples of usage would be In my opinion he’s a coward; He’s leaving town as per orders from the court; You were arrested pursuant to law; According to our teacher, humans are descended from apes.

4.5.9 ESS The Essive Case

The ESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ea-. The ESSIVE identifies the role or name by which a noun is known or contextually identified. It translates English ‘as’ in the sense of naming or reference to the a nouns functional identity. It would be used in translating the English sentences They called him a clown, The woman entered the club as an equal of any man, We consider you our only hope.

4.5.10 ASI The Assimilative Case

The ASSIMILATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eo-. The ASSIMILATIVE identifies a noun used as a context for analogy or metaphorical comparison to either another noun or a verb. Thus, it translates English ‘like’ or ‘as’ in the sense of comparison or analogy between one thing and another. Examples of usage are She sings like a bird, As children they seemed to me.

4.5.11 FUN The Functive Case

The FUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eö-. It functions similarly to English adverbs ending in -ly or the adverbial use of with, identifying the manner in which an action, event, or state occurs or exists. More exactly, it identifies a noun used to characterize the manner of the act, state, or event, translatable most accurately by the phrase ‘in a manner characterized by….’ Examples would be: She dances gracefully (i.e., in a manner characterized by grace), The boys ate with gusto, That clown is speaking nonsense, Father speaks with such fortitude.

4.5.12 TFM The Transformative Case

The TRANSFORMATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oa-. The TRANSFORMATIVE identifies the outcome or final state of a process, often translatable by ‘to,’ ‘until,’ or ‘into’ in the sense of reaching a final state after having undergone some transformation. Example usages would be The house burned to ashes, The clown reached a state of tranquility, The clowns will turn our children into slaves, Her father drank himself to death.

4.5.13 REF The Referential Case

The REFERENTIAL case is marked by the Vc value -oe-. The REFERENTIAL identifies a noun functioning as the general referent of the verb, translating such English terms as ‘about,’ ‘regarding,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘in regard to,’ ‘in reference to,’ ‘pertaining to,’ or ‘as for.’ Examples of use would be a song of love; As for those books, burn them!; Let’s talk about clowns; His attitude toward women.

4.5.14 CLA The Classificative Case

The CLASSIFICATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öa-. The CLASSIFICATIVE identifies a noun as a basis for arranging, sorting, classifying, or counting, translating various English prepositions and phrases used for this purpose. Example of usage are Place them in groups of three, The workers arranged the tables in rows, He lay down lengthwise, Can you count by fives?, I will sort them by color.

The CLASSIFICATIVE is also used to identify a noun considered in consecutively recurring increments as a means of describing the manner of an event. This is usually in conjunction with nouns denoting time periods, but can be used with any concrete noun to describe the repetitive nature of an event. Examples would be Month by month, their departure crept closer; Year after year, I see more and more clowns; Day in, day out, he’s always working; The fertilizer factory keeps rolling them out, bag upon bag; Patient by patient, the nurse administered injections.

Note that the CLASSIFICATIVE would not be used to describe a noun other than adverbially, e.g., it would not be used to translate the sentence One bomb after another fell on the city. Such a construction would utilize a suffix indicating sequential instantiations of the noun (see Sec. 7.4.4).

4.5.15 CNV The Conductive Case

The CONDUCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öe-. The CONDUCTIVE identifies the meaningful or relevant context of another. It can be thought of as conveying the relationship signified by the expressions ‘having to do with,’ ‘as it pertains to,’ or ‘considered within the context of.’ Examples of English phrases translatable using this case are a circus clown, a mountain man, a feeling of loneliness, the Mafia’s world, a realm of fear, my life achievement, childhood memories, Let’s discuss the morality of war.

4.5.16 IDP The Interdependent Case

The INTERDEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -üa- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -i’-. The INTERDEPENDENT identifies a noun which has a coordinated, tandem, complementary or mutually dependent relationship with another. The relationship between the two nouns can be thought of as reciprocal in nature, i.e., each noun implies the other or needs the other to exist within it’s natural context, e.g., the students’ teacher, an army general, the blood in my veins, the driver of the truck, the nation’s leader, his team (i.e., the one on which he’s a member). Note that this case does not imply a part-whole dependency as with the GENITIVE case above, e.g., it would not be used to translate the book’s pages, or the leaves of a tree.

4.5.17 BEN The Benefactive Case

The BENEFACTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üe- unless the preceding Cr stems ending in -w or -y, in which case the Vc value is -ö’-. The BENEFACTIVE identifies a noun for whose sake or benefit an action or event occurs or is done. As such, the BENEFACTIVE is similar to the DATIVE, except that the BENEFACTIVE implies a strong emphasis on the fact that the noun is more than simply the recipient or target of a dative action, but rather benefits in a tangible or consequential way from the action or event. It is usually translated by English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘for the sake (i.e., benefit) of.’ Examples of usage are a toy for the children, We threw him a party, Go to the teachers’ lounge.

The BENEFACTIVE also translates the English phrases ‘out of respect for,’ ‘for the sake of,’ or ‘in deference toward,’ identifying the noun to which deference is paid within the context for an act, condition, or event. Examples of usage would be He remained silent for her sake, They went on with the ceremony out of respect for the families, They dressed in robes because of tradition.

4.5.18 TSP The Transpositive Case

The TRANSPOSITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -üo- unless the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, in which case the Vc value is -î’-, or the preceding Cr stem ends in-y, in which case the Vc value is -û’. The TRANSPOSITIVE implies substitution of one noun for another. It translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘on behalf of,’ ‘in place of,’ or ‘instead of’ (i.e., ‘as a substitution for’). Examples of usage are The boss made the speech for me, She went up into the attic for her brother (i.e., so he wouldn’t have to).

4.5.19 CMM The Commutative Case

The COMMUTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au-. The COMMUTATIVE translates English ‘for’ in the sense of ‘in exchange for’ as in You paid too much money for that dress, She kills for thrills.

4.5.20 COM The Comitative Case

The COMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu-. Similar to its counterpart in Uralic languages such as Finnish or Estonian, the COMITATIVE translates the English ‘with’ in its meaning of accompaniment (i.e., ‘along with’) as in The child went with the clown to the party. Like English ‘with,’ the COMITATIVE does not imply that the conjoined noun is necessarily engaged in the same activity or associated with the same verb as the head noun. For example, in the sentence My father was walking with a loaf of bread, the loaf of bread is not considered to be itself walking.

It should be noted, however, that the COMITATIVE is not used to imply mutually interactive or reciprocal activity between two nouns. Thus it would not be used in translating the sentences They danced with each other or Mother wants to talk with you. These would be translated using the RECIPROCAL valence of the verb, explained in Section 5.7. This distinction is illustrated even more clearly by comparing the following two sentences; the first would be translated using the COMITATIVE, the second would not: This man fought with my father (e.g., alongside him during the war) versus This man fought with my father (e.g., they had a fight with each other).

Note also that the COMITATIVE is not used to indicate instrumentality (English ‘with’ meaning ‘by means of’). Thus, it is not used to translate sentences such as I cut the meat with a knife. As previously discussed in Section 4.3.8, instrumentality is indicated by use of the INSTRUMENTAL case. Likewise, it is not used to identify the resources or material(s) consumed in undertaking an act, as in He catches his fish with worms for which the COMPOSITIVE case is used.

4.5.21 CNJ The Conjunctive Case

The CONJUNCTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu-. The CONJUNCTIVE translates English ‘with’ in its meaning of ‘in conjunction with,’ i.e., to indicate that the noun is engaged in the same activity or a complementary activity as the conjoined noun. It should be distinguished from the COMITATIVE above, which indicates mere accompaniment. For example, in the walking with a loaf of bread example from above, it would be incorrect to use the CONJUNCTIVE case because that would signify the bread was walking, too. To further illustrate the usage, consider the sentence I’m with the brigade. Translating ‘brigade’ using the COMITATIVE would mean that ‘I’ve come along (e.g., drove) with the brigade to the scene,’ while using the CONJUNCTIVE would mean ‘I’m a member of the brigade.’ Additional examples where the CONJUNCTIVE would be used are They skate with the best team, That teacher works well with children.

4.5.22 UTL The Utilitative Case

The UTILITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou-. The UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in the process of being utilized. This corresponds to the use of English ‘with’ where it refers to actual use in progress as in A man with a gun ran into the room. It should be distinguished from the INSTRUMENTAL (see Sec. 4.3.8) in that the latter indicates the implement used to accomplish an action, while the UTILITATIVE identifies a noun in use, but does not imply that the noun was the implement used to accomplish a stated action. For example, compare the sentence The man with an umbrella was pushing a stroller in the rain (UTILITATIVE) with The man pushed a stroller in the rain with an umbrella (INSTRUMENTAL). The first sentence implies the man was pushing a stroller with one hand while holding an open umbrella against the rain, whereas the second sentence has him using the umbrella to push the stroller. Another way to translate the UTILITATIVE would be to use an English gerundial construction as in A gun-wielding man ran into the room or An umbrella-toting man pushed a stroller in the rain.

Besides the INSTRUMENTAL, the UTILITATIVE should likewise be distinguished from the COMITATIVE case above, in that the COMITATIVE merely indicates accompaniment, while the UTILITATIVE indicates use in progress. For example, the sentence Go sit next to the girl with the book, if translated using the COMITATIVE would merely identify a girl who has a book in her visible possession, while with the UTILITATIVE it would mean the girl is actually engaged in reading the book.

4.5.23 ABE The Abessive Case

The ABESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu-. The ABESSIVE is essentially the opposite of the COMITATIVE, translating the English ‘without’ or ‘-less’ in the sense of ‘unaccompanied by’ or ‘not having’ as in a day without rain or a treeless plain. As noted in the next section below on the CONVERSIVE case, it is not used to translate ‘without’ when it means ‘unless one has,’ referring to a hypothetical exception to a potential outcome as in I can’t go on without love.

4.5.24 CVS The Conversive Case

The CONVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -öu-. The CONVERSIVE is used in conjunction with hypothetical or potential contexts to identify a hypothetical exception to a potential outcome or an actual circumstance which alters or has altered a potential outcome. This translates two different ways into English. Where it indicates an exception to a hypothetical situation, it is translated by the conjunction ‘unless’ in verbal contexts, and by the preposition ‘without’ for nouns (note that ‘without’ in this sense does not correspond to its usual ABESSIVE usage in Sec. 4.5.23 above). If applied to a real or actual situation, it is translatable by such expressions as ‘but for,’ ‘if not for,’ ‘if it wasn’t for,’ or ‘if it wasn’t on account of.’ Example of usage: Without peace, this society is doomed; If not for the rain, we would have had a good time.

4.5.25 COR The Correlative Case

The CORRELATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’-. The CORRELATIVE is used to indicate an abstract relationship, association, or conjunction between a noun and another noun or verb, including subjective, contextual, metaphorical, or symbolic associations. It translates general phrases such as ‘relative to,’ ‘in relation to,’ ‘in correlation with,’ ‘in association with,’ etc. It would be used in translating phrases such as career goals, the soup of the day, the direction of that road, The elapsed time relative to the distance determines the winner, Our next topic is sex and (or in) art (i.e., the relationship between art and sex). Additional examples are years of wonder, the Clown Planet, life blood, city of evil. Note that the CORRELATIVE case would often be used to translate constructions for which English often uses an adjective, e.g., spatial coordinates, the political economy, a dangerous situation (i.e., a situation characterized by danger).

When used in contexts involving directional motion or spatial positioning, the CORRELATIVE signifies the directional orientation or position of one noun relative to another, i.e., a noun relative to whose position in space another noun is being described for purposes of spatial orientation. To an English-speaker, the function of this case makes greater sense once one realizes that, in Ithkuil, most one-to-one spatial relationships are described by verbs, not prepositions, e.g., ‘to be situated on the right,’ ‘to move beneath,’ etc. Consequently, this use of the CORRELATIVE case can be thought of as expressing the phrase ‘relative to.’ Examples of how it would be used are I’m standing four feet north of the desk, The one hanging above the boxes looks fresh, It lies at a 30° angle relative to the tree, He turned his back on me, The upstairs bedroom faces the yard, It’s alongside the desk (i.e., its lateral surface is oriented toward the desk).

As will be described in Section 5.4.2.3, the CORRELATIVE is used with verbal case-frames to convey the equivalent of simple relative clauses in Western languages.

4.5.26 DEP The Dependent Case

The DEPENDENT case is marked by the Vc value -ui’-. The DEPENDENT translates the English phrase ‘depending on’ signifying a noun as the contingency on which the reality of a main clause depends. Examples of usage would be Depending on the rain, we’ll go for a picnic; She may show up, depending on her attitude.

The DEPENDENT should be distinguished from the PREDICATIVE case in Sec. 4.5.4, in that the former denotes contingency, while the PREDICATIVE denotes reliance.

4.5.27 PVS The Provisional Case

The PROVISIONAL case is marked by the Vc value -ei’-. The PROVISIONAL identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance on which the factuality of the main clause of the sentence depends, i.e., the required condition(s) which must come into existence for the situation described in the main clause to occur. This is translatable by such English phrases as ‘provided (that),’ ‘on condition of,’ ‘only in case of,’ or ‘but only if,’ e.g., Provided [there’s] food, I will attend the meeting; We will fight only in case of war.

4.5.28 PTL The Postulative Case

The POSTULATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’-. The operates somewhat similarly to the PROVISIONAL above, except that the POSTULATIVE implies a causal or consequential relationship (not merely a circumstantial one) between the pre-condition(s) and the circumstances of the main clause. Specifically, it identifies the noun, situation, or circumstance whose factuality has not yet come into existence, but, should it come into existence, will result in the consequence indicated by the main clause. This is translatable by English ‘if,’ or ‘in case of.’ Note that it does not translate English ‘if’ where it means ‘whether’ as in I don’t know if it’s warm enough, i.e., where the clause is meant only to convey uncertainty or optionality (but not a causal relationship between a potential condition and its consequences). Examples of usage: If [there’s] snow, I’m not going out; In case of fire, flee; If friend, welcome them, if foe, kill ’em.

The example below is offered to further distinguish the use of the POSTULATIVE case from the PROVISIONAL case above:

PROVISIONAL: We’re packing umbrellas, but only in case of bad weather (i.e., umbrellas will not be packed unless the weather is actually bad).

POSTULATIVE: We’re packing umbrellas in case of bad weather (i.e., the umbrellas are being packed in preparation for the possibility of bad weather).

4.5.29 CON The Concessive Case

The CONCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -au’-. The CONCESSIVE case identifies a noun, situation, or circumstance which gives rise to an expectation of a certain result which, in fact, does not occur. This can be translated by various English prepositions, conjunctions, or phrases such as ‘despite,’ ‘in spite of,’ ‘notwithstanding,’ ‘although,’ ‘regardless of,’ ‘no matter what,’ etc. Examples of usage: In spite of his stupidity, he passed the test; The law notwithstanding, I will stand my ground; No matter how ignorant (they may be), they are welcome, Although foreigners, we will let them attend the meeting.

4.5.30 EXC The Exceptive Case

The EXCEPTIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’-. The EXCEPTIVE indicates a noun, situation, or circumstance which is an exception, or is exempted or excluded from the main clause, translatable by English ‘except (for),’ ‘but (not),’ or ‘excluding.’ Examples of usage: She loves everybody except clowns; I like all animals, excluding dogs; He eats almost anything but (not) spinach.

4.5.31 AVR The Aversive Case

The AVERSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’-. The AVERSIVE identifies a noun as a source or object of fear and/or avoidance. With nouns, it translates expressions such as ‘for fear of,’ ‘in order to avoid,’ or ‘in avoidance of.’ With verb phrases (i.e., case-frames; see Sec. 5.2) , it would translate English ‘lest.’ Examples of usage are She finished her plate for fear of my wrath, I traveled by night to avoid the sun.

4.5.32 CMP The Comparative Case

The COMPARATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’-. The COMPARATIVE identifies a noun being compared to another. It translates such expressions as ‘as compared to,’ or certain usages of ‘versus’ or ‘as opposed to.’ It is similar to the CONTRASTIVE case (see Section 4.5.2 above), except that it does not carry the sense of opposition, joint exclusivity, or either-or binary substitution of the CONTRASTIVE, but rather merely comparison/choice/preference from various options or along a spectrum or scale. With verbal case-frames (see Sec. 5.4) it would translate as ‘whereas’ or ‘while’ (in its synonymous usage to ‘whereas’). Examples are She chose the red one as opposed to the others, Sam drives a van versus Joe, who prefers a truck, You’ll find it in Room Twelve [as opposed to a room with a different number.

The temporal cases deal with contexts relating to time. In many respects, Ithkuil analyzes time similarly to Western languages, particularly in the ability to spatially compartmentalize time as seen in such English phrases as ‘in 3 hours,’ ‘for 5 years,’ ‘day by day,’ and ‘per month,’ as well as in analyzing time as progressively linear using concepts such as ‘before,’ ‘after,’ ‘during,’ ‘until,’ and ‘ago.’ The fifteen temporal cases are the SIMULTANEITIVE, ASSESSIVE, CONCURSIVE, ACCESSIVE, DIFFUSIVE, PERIODIC, PROLAPSIVE, PRECURSIVE, POSTCURSIVE, ELAPSIVE, ALLAPSIVE, INTERPOLATIVE, EPISODIC, PROLIMITIVE, and LIMITATIVE. Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided in Sec. 4.6.16.

4.6.1 SML The Simultaneitive Case

The SIMULTANEITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -a’a-, or optionally -a’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The SIMULTANEITIVE identifies a noun signifying a time period simultaneous to the act, state, or event under discussion. Examples would be I was in class at the same time as his accident, I worked a side-job concurrent to the strike, She laughed simultaneously with my coughing fit.

4.6.2 ASS The Assessive Case

The ASSESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -e’a-, or optionally -e’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The ASSESSIVE specifies the unit of time by which a contextual ratio of measurement is created, corresponding to English ‘by’ or ‘per.’ Examples would be My lawyer charges by the minute, He publishes several books each year, The clown drove the fun-mobile at 90 miles per hour.

4.6.3 CNR The Concursive Case

The CONCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -i’a-, or optionally -i’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The CONCURSIVE serves as a “temporal locative” signifying the beginning and ending boundaries of time during or at which an act, state, or event occurs, the whole of which being considered a single contextual situation. Examples of usage would be He prays during lunch, She studied hard last night, I won’t visit until then (i.e., during that period in time).

4.6.4 ACS The Accessive Case

The ACCESSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -o’a-, or optionally -o’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The ACCESSIVE is similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time identified is specific to a single moment or a brief, highly delimited period seen in context as one moment, i.e., the point in time at which something occurs. Examples of usage would be Dinner will be served at sunset; When (i.e., at the moment that) you hear his voice, call in the clowns; Upon impact, both cars were accelerating.

4.6.5 DFF The Diffusive Case

The DIFFUSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -u’a-, or optionally -u’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The DIFFUSIVE is yet another temporal locative similar to the CONCURSIVE, except that the time period identified does not have explicit boundaries, only being centered on the period identified by the noun. It is best expressed by the English phrase ‘during the time surrounding….’ Examples of usage would be Most cars had tail fins in those days; I was abroad during that era; At the time of his death, the number of clowns was increasing; Over the past several seasons, your talent has matured.

4.6.6 PER The Periodic Case

The PERIODIC case is marked by the Vc value -ö’a-, or optionally -ö’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The PERIODIC identifies the span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. This case should be distinguished from the CONCURSIVE above, in that the CONCURSIVE signifies a contextually single holistic event, whereas the PERIODIC specifies a time frame in which separate events, repetitions, or durationally extended acts or states take place. Examples would be He wrote the novel in six months, These clowns can corrupt your child within a few days, The woman has been ill a lot this year, For the last several concerts, my voice has been deteriorating.

4.6.7 PRO The Prolapsive Case

The PROLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ü’a- (or -ëu’a- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y). Optionally the Vc value can be -ü’V- (or -ëu’V- if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The PROLAPSIVE signifies the duration of an act, condition, or event, i.e., how long it takes or lasts. This case should be distinguished from the PERIODIC above, in that the PROLAPSIVE specifies the actual duration of the act, condition, or event, whereas the PERIODIC merely specifies a contextual span of time at some point(s) during which, an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be He prayed through lunch, While he was dying, the number of clowns increased, It rained all night, It took three days for the fever to break, She sang for an hour.

4.6.8 PCV The Precursive Case

The PRECURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ai’a-, or optionally -ai’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The PRECURSIVE identifies a point in time prior to which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This situation occurred before the war, It rained prior to his appearance, There will be a presentation preceding the banquet.

4.6.9 PCR The Postcursive Case

The POSTCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ei’a-, or optionally -ei’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The POSTCURSIVE identifies a point in time after which an act, condition, or event occurs. Examples would be This situation occurred after the war, It rained subsequent to his appearance, There will be a presentation following the banquet.

4.6.10 ELP The Elapsive Case

The ELAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ui’a-, or optionally -ui’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The ELAPSIVE identifies the amount of time that has passed between the contextual present and the time of the act, condition, or event being spoken of. It corresponds to English ‘…ago.’ Examples would be Four years ago I was a student; Going back three generations, women could not even vote.

4.6.11 ALP The Allapsive Case

The ALLAPSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -oi’a-, or optionally -oi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The ALLAPSIVE identifies the amount of time that expected to pass between the contextual present and the time of a future act, condition, or event. Examples would be Four years from now, I will be a student; Looking ahead three generations, clowns will rule the world; I will be home in three days; Little did he know that two months later he’d be a rich man.

4.6.12 INP The Interpolative Case

The INTERPOLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëi’a-, or optionally -ëi’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The INTERPOLATIVE is used within the context of repetitive or iterative acts, states, and events and signifies the duration of each repetition. Examples of usage are We heard several five-second snippets of music; Between lightning bursts were intervals of several seconds; She gets recurring migraines, each lasting hours.

4.6.13 EPS The Episodic Case

The EPISODIC case is marked by the Vc value -au’a-, or optionally -au’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The EPISODIC identifies a contextually recurring time-period. Examples of usage are The man talks with his mother every three days; Each year, I travel to the Clown Planet; He works nights; By day, she is an artisan; The clowns visit us on Sundays.

4.6.14 PLM The Prolimitive Case

The PROLIMITIVE case is marked by the Vc value -eu’a-, or optionally -eu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The PROLIMITIVE defines a point in time which signifies a temporal limit to further contextual activity, i.e., the time by which some act, state, or event occurs. Examples of usage would be By the time of your graduation, I want you out of the house; Please be on board by midnight; By the time of the raid, there was nothing left to steal.

4.6.15 LIM The Limitative Case

The LIMITATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -iu’a-, or optionally -iu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The LIMITATIVE signifies a event culminating an anticipatory context. It translates the English expression ‘in time for.’ Examples of usage are He arrived in time for dinner, Be inside the Big Tent in time for the clowns.

As noted previously, prepositions do not exist in Ithkuil. While various non-Indo-European languages such as Finnish, Hungarian, Basque and the North Caucasian languages accomplish the equivalent of prepositional relationships using noun cases, such relationships are usually accomplished in Ithkuil via verbal formatives (e.g., a verb translatable as ‘to be inside of’ instead of a preposition ‘inside of’). Nevertheless, there are six cases corresponding to certain types of spatial relationships. These are the LOCATIVE, ORIENTATIVE, PROCURSIVE, ALLATIVE, ABLATIVE, and NAVIGATIVE.

Also: see Section 4.5.25 above regarding the use of the CORRELATIVE case in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

Following are explanations of the function and usage of each case. Actual Ithkuil examples of these cases in use are provided in Sec. 4.7.7.

4.7.1 LOC The Locative Case

The LOCATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -â’a-, or optionally -â’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The LOCATIVE signifies general static position in the same contextual place as the specified location, translatable by many English prepositions such as ‘at,’ ‘in,’ ‘on,’ or ‘by,’ depending on the context, e.g., in that building, by the wall, on the street, at my house.

4.7.2 ORI The Orientative Case

The ORIENTATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ê’a-, or optionally -ê’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The ORIENTATIVE identifies the noun (usually a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the forward “end” of a spatially orientated axis aligned to a vector of motion. This is translatable into English using elements such as ‘-ward(s)’ or ‘-first’ in conjunction with portions of objects in a spatio-orientational context, e.g., He jumped in feet-first, The car rolled backward. The ORIENTATIVE allows for the extension of this concept to contexts which seem awkward in English translation, e.g., He walked “butt-ward” down the street (i.e., backward with his butt protruding frontwards, leading the way).

4.7.3 PSV The Procursive Case

The PROCURSIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ô’a-, or optionally -ô’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The PROCURSIVE identifies a noun (often a subcomponent or body part) which serves as the orientational reference point, interactional surface or interface relative to the direction of interaction with, or position in space of, a second noun. This second noun usually appears in the ALLATIVE case (see below). Examples of use would be They collided sideways, She turned her back on him, The chair “faced” the doorway (i.e., The chair stood with it’s seat and back aligned toward the doorway).

4.7.4 ALL The Allative Case

The ALLATIVE case is marked by either the Vc value -î’a- or -û’a-; if the preceding Cr stem ends in -w, the Vc value is -î’V-, whereas if the preceding Cr stem ends in -y, the Vc value is -û’V-; for other Cr stems, either Vc value is permissible. Optionally the Vc value can be -î’V- or -û’V- (under the same rules for Cr stems ending in -w or -y), where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

When used in the context of explicit or implied directional motion, the ALLATIVE signifies the direction of motion, translatable by ‘to’ or ‘toward(s)’ or the suffix ‘-ward(s)’ in English. Note that the ALLATIVE in no way implies that the object is intended as the final or intended destination or goal of the motion or movement, only the direction of the movement. Examples would be I wandered eastward, The little girl ran toward me, Throw the rock at that clown!, We headed for home.

4.7.5 ABL The Ablative Case The ABLATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ëu’a-, or optionally -ëu’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if both phonotactically and morpho-phonologically permissible (i.e., if it’s deletion does not violate phonotactic rules (see Section 1.4) and does not cause confusion or ambiguity in parsing the various consonants and vowels of the formative into their respective morphemes (i.e., their grammatical components).

When used in context of explicit or implied directional motion, the ABLATIVE signifies the general directional origin of movement away from or out of. It does not specify the actual point of origin or departure. Examples would be He came out of the east, She walked here from (the direction of) the river.

When used in contexts where directional motion is not implied, the ABLATIVE signifies a reverse directional orientation of one noun relative to another, e.g., He faced away from me.

4.7.6 NAV The Navigative Case

The NAVIGATIVE case is marked by the Vc value -ou’a-, or optionally -ou’V-, where V has the value of the formative’s Vr affix (from Slot IV); if choosing the latter value for Vc, then the formative’s Vr affix can be deleted from Slot IV if it is in word-initial position.

The NAVIGATIVE identifies the noun relative to whose vector, arc, or trajectory of motion an act, state, or event takes place. This is particularly important, as we will see in Section 10.3.3 that Ithkuil modes of positional reference are tied into the vectors of movement or the configurational axes of objects in the environment such as the sun or the length of a room. Example uses would be I looked down the street, We aligned it perpendicular to the path of the sun, He crossed the room diagonally (i.e., walked diagonally relative to the long axis of the room.)