Nature of thought Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

• An activity taking place in a:
  • brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
    • mind – abstract entity with the cognitive faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Having a mind is a characteristic of living creatures. Activities taking place in a mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions.
  • computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
  • An activity of intelligence – intelligence is the intellectual process of which is marked by cognition, motivation, and self-awareness.[3] Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
    • A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
• Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism.
  • Neural Network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire. These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity. For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network. The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons. The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

• Concept – Mental representation or an abstract object
  • Abstract concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
  • Concrete concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
• Conjecture – Proposition in mathematics that is unproven
• Decision (see Decision-making)
• Definition – Statement that attaches a meaning to a term
• Explanation – Set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies causes
• Hypothesis – Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
• Idea – Mental image or concept
• Logical argument
• Logical assertion
• Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
• Percept / Perception
• Premise – Statement that an argument claims will induce or justify a conclusion
• Proposition – Non-linguistic meaning of a sentence
• Syllogism – Type of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning
• Theory – Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something
• Thought experiment – Considering a hypothesis, theory, or principle for the purpose of thinking through its consequences

Content of thoughts

• Argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
• Belief – Psychological state of holding a proposition or premise to be true
• Communication – Act of conveying intended meaning
• Data – individual units of information
• Information – That which informs; the answer to a question of some kind; that from which data and knowledge can be derived
• Knowledge – Familiarity, awareness, or understanding of information or skills acquired through experience or education
• Schema – Pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought Further information: Animal cognition and Animal intelligence

Human thought

• Analysis
• Awareness – State or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
• Calculation – Arithmetical calculations using only the human brain
• Estimation – Process of finding an approximation, which is a value that is usable for some purpose, though uncertain
• Categorization – Process in which ideas and objects are grouped according to their characteristics and the relationships between them
• Cognitive restructuring – Psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or maladaptive thoughts known as cognitive distortions
• Computational thinking
• Convergent thinking
• Counterfactual thinking – Concept in psychology
• Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
• Data thinking
• Evaluation – A systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance,
• Habit – Routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously
• Integrative thinking
• Internal monologue – Form of verbal thinking (surface thoughts)
• Introspection – Examining one's own thoughts and feelings
• Learning – Any process in an organism in which a relatively long-lasting adaptive behavioral change occurs as the result of experience and memory
• Parallel thinking
• Prediction – Statement about a future event
• Recollection
• Stochastic thinking
• Strategic thinking
• Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or practice
• Visual thinking

Classifications of thought

• Bloom's taxonomy – Classification system in education
• Dual process theory – Psychological theory of how thought can arise in two different ways
• Fluid and crystallized intelligence – Factors of general intelligence
• Higher-order thinking – A concept of education reform
• Theory of multiple intelligences – Theory of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner
• Three-stratum theory
• Williams' taxonomy

Creative processes

• Brainstorming – Group creativity technique
• Cognitive module
• Creativity – Phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is formed
• Creative problem solving
• Creative writing – Academic discipline concerned with creating literature
• Creativity techniques
• Design thinking – Processes by which design concepts are developed
• Divergent thinking – A method of generating creative ideas
• Imagination – Creative ability
• Lateral thinking – Problem-solving manner, using an indirect and creative approach, via reasoning through traditional step-by-step logic
• Noogenesis
• Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Edward de Bono
• Speech act – utterance that serves a performative function
• Speed thinking
• Stream of consciousness
• Thinking outside the box – Metaphor for unconventional thinking

Decision-making Main article: Decision-making

• Choice – Deciding between multiple options
• Cybernetics – Study of regulatory and purposive systems
• Decision theory – Study of an agent's choices
• Executive system
• Goals and goal setting
• Judgement – Decision making; evaluation of evidence to make a decision
• Planning
• Rational choice theory – Sociological theory
• Speech act – utterance that serves a performative function
• Value (personal and cultural)
• Value judgment

Erroneous thinking See also: Error and Human error

• Black and white thinking
• Catastrophization
• Cognitive bias – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment
• Cognitive distortion – Exaggerated or irrational thought patterns
• Dysrationalia – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
• Emotional reasoning
• Exaggeration
• Foolishness – Lack of social norms causing offence or similar effect
• Fallacies – Argument that uses faulty reasoning (see also List of fallacies)
• Fallacies of definition
• Logical fallacy – Form of incorrect argument in natural language
• Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
• Irrationality – Thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of rationality
• Linguistic error – Deviation from what is corrects
• Magical thinking – Belief that unrelated events are causally connected despite the absence of any plausible causal link between them
• Minimisation (psychology)
• Motivated reasoning – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions
• Rationalization (psychology) – Attempt to justify behavior or attitudes with inappropriate logical reasoning
• Rhetoric – Art of discourse
• Straight and Crooked Thinking (book)
• Target fixation
• Wishful thinking

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking) Emotional intelligence – Capability to understand one's emotions and use it to guide thinking and behavior

• Acting – date=October 2020
• Affect logic
• Allophilia
• Attitude (psychology) – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
• Curiosity – Quality related to inquisitive thinking
• Elaboration likelihood model
• Emotion – Subjective, conscious experience characterised primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental statess and feelings
• Emotion and memory – Critical factors contributing to the emotional enhancement effect on human memory
• Emotional contagion
• Empathy – The capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing
• Epiphany (feeling) – Sudden understanding of something's essence
• Mood (psychology) – Relatively long lasting emotional, internal and subjective state
• Motivation – Psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal
• Propositional attitude
• Rhetoric – Art of discourse
• Self actualization
• Self control
• Self-esteem – Psychology term about a person's evaluation of their own status
• Self-determination theory – Macro theory of human motivation and personality
• Social cognition – Study of cognitive processes involved in social interactions
• Will (philosophy)
• Volition (psychology) – Cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action.

Problem solving Problem solving – Generic and ad hoc approach to problem solving

• Problem solving steps
• Problem finding – Problem discovery
• Problem shaping
• Process of elimination
• Systems thinking
• Critical systems thinking
• Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
• Abstraction – Process of generalisation – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
• Analogy – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
• Brainstorming – Group creativity technique – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
• Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
• Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
• Lateral thinking – Problem-solving manner, using an indirect and creative approach, via reasoning through traditional step-by-step logic – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
• Oblique Strategies – Set of cards intended to promote creativity
• Parallel thinking
• Provocative operation
• Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Edward de Bono
• Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
• Method of focal objects – synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new
• Morphological analysis – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
• Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
• Reduction – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
• Research – Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
• Root cause analysis – Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems – identifying the cause of a problem
• Thinking outside the box – Metaphor for unconventional thinking
• Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
• Troubleshooting – Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes –

Problem-solving methodology

• 5 Whys
• Decision cycle – Sequence of steps used by an entity on a repeated basis to reach and implement decisions and to learn from the results
• Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
• GROW model
• How to Solve It
• Learning cycle – How people learn from experience
• OODA loop – Observe–orient–decide–act cycle (observe, orient, decide, and act)
• PDCA (plan–do–check–act)
• Problem structuring methods
• RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem resolution)
• TRIZ (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, theory of solving inventor's problems)
• Vertical thinking

Reasoning Reasoning

• Abstract thinking – Process of generalisation
• Adaptive reasoning
• Analogical reasoning – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
• Analytic reasoning
• Case-based reasoning
• Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
• Defeasible reasoning – Reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
• Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
• Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
• Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors
• Heuristic – Problem-solving method that is sufficient for immediate solutions or approximationss
• Historical thinking
• Intuitive reasoning
• Lateral thinking – Problem-solving manner, using an indirect and creative approach, via reasoning through traditional step-by-step logic
• Logic – The study of inference and truth / Logical reasoning
• Abductive reasoning – Form of logical inference which seeks the simplest and most likely explanation – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
• Deductive reasoning – Method of reasoning by which premises understood to be true produce logically certain conclusions – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
• Inductive reasoning – Method of logical reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) if p then q; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
• Inference – Act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true
• Moral reasoning – Study in psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
• Probabilistic reasoning – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
• Proportional reasoning – using the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation.[6]
• Rational thinking
• Semiosis
• Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
• Strategic thinking
• Synthetic reasoning
• Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
• Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms.

Machine thought Main articles: Machine thought and Outline of artificial intelligence

• Artificial creativity
• Automated reasoning
• Commonsense reasoning
• Model-based reasoning
• Opportunistic reasoning
• Qualitative reasoning – automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
• Spatial–temporal reasoning
• Textual case based reasoning
• Computer program (recorded machine thought instructions)
• Human-based computation

Organizational thought Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

• Management information system – Information system used for decision-making
• Organizational communication – Field of study in communication studies
• Organizational planning
• Strategic planning
• Strategic thinking
• Systems theory – Interdisciplinary study of systems

Aspects of the thinker Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

• Ability – Ability to influence the behavior of others
• Aptitude – Ability; competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level
• Attitude – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
• Behavior – Way that one acts in different situations
• Cognitive style
• Common sense – Practical judgement in everyday matters
• Experience – The effect or influence of exposure to an event or subject
• Instinct – Inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior
• Intelligence – Ability to perceive, infer, retain or apply information
• Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
• Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
• Mindset – Term in decision theory and general systems theory
• Preference
• Rationality – The quality of being agreeable to reason
• Skill – The ability to carry out a task
• Wisdom – Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight
  • Sapience

Properties of thought

• Accuracy and precision – Closeness to true value or to each other
• Cogency
• Dogma – Principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.
• Effectiveness – Capability of producing the desired result
• Efficacy – Able to finish something satisfactorly
• Efficiency – Degree to which a process minimizes waste of resources
• Freethought – Position that beliefs should be formed only on the basis of logic, reason, and empiricism
• Frugality
• Meaning
• Prudence
• Rights – Legal, social, or ethical principles
• Skepticism – Questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief
• Soundness – Logical term meaning that an argument is valid and its premises are true
• Validity – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are
• Value theory
• Wrongdoing – Act that is illegals or immoral

Fields that study thought

• Linguistics – Study of human language
• Philosophy – Study of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct
  • Logic – The study of inference and truth
  • Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of the mind
• Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system
  • Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes
  • Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviours
    • Cognitive psychology – Subdiscipline of psychology
    • Social psychology – Scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
  • Psychiatry – Branch of medicine devoted to mental disorders
• Mathematics – Field of study
• Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods

Thought tools and thought research

• Cognitive model
• Design tool
• Diagram – Symbolic representation of information using visualization techniques
  • Argument map
  • Concept map – Diagram showing relationships among concepts
  • Mind map – System or map used to visually organize information
• DSRP
• Intelligence amplification
• Language – Communication using symbols (such as words) structured with grammar
• Meditation – Mental practice of focus on a particular object, thought or activity to improve one's mind
• Six Thinking Hats – 1985 book by Edward de Bono
• Synectics

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs) Nootropic – Drug, supplement, or other substance that improves cognitive function

See also: List of nootropics Substances that improve mental performance:

• 5-Hydroxytryptophan, also known as 5-HTP
• Adrafinil (Olmifon)
• Aniracetam
• Withania somnifera, also known as Ashwagandha – Species of plant
• Bacopa monnieri – Species of aquatic plant (Brahmi)
• Caffeine – Central nervous system stimulant
• Acetylcarnitine, also known as Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR)
• Meclofenoxate, also known as Centrophenoxine – Chemical compound
• Choline – Chemical compound that is an essential nutrient for humans and many other animals
• Cholinergic
• Chromium – Chemical element with atomic number 24
• Coenzyme Q10 – Chemical compound
• Coffee – Brewed beverage made from the seed of Coffea species
• Creatine – Chemical compound
• Dimethylethanolamine (DMAE)
• Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine)
• Huperzine A
• Idebenone
• Inositol – Carbocyclic sugar
• L-DOPA – Chemical compound
• Lecithin – Generic term for amphiphilic substances of plant and animal origin
• Lemon balm – Lemon balm, a species of plant (Melissa Officinalis)
• Lipoic acid
• Methylphenidate – Medication of the stimulant class (Ritalin)
• Modafinil – Medication which increases wakefulness (Provigil)
• Oxiracetam
• Phenibut – Chemical compound
• Phenylalanine – Type of α-amino acid
• Piracetam (Nootropil)
• Pramiracetam
• Pyritinol (Enerbol)
• Rhodiola rosea – Species of flowering plant in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae
• Selegiline (Deprenyl) – Monoamine oxidase inhibitor
• Eleutherococcus senticosus, also known as Siberian ginseng – Species of flowering plant
• Hypericum perforatum, also known as St John's Wort – Flowering plant in the St John's wort family Hypericaceae
• Sutherlandia frutescens – Species of legume
• Tea – Hot drink made from water and tea leaves
• Theanine – Chemical compound
• Theophylline
• Tryptophan
• Tyrosine – Amino acid
• Vasopressin – Mammalian hormone released from the pituitary gland
• Vinpocetine
• Vitamin B3, also known as Nicotinic acid
• Vitamin B5
• Vitamin B6 – Class of chemically related vitamins
• Vitamin B12 – vitamin involved in the metabolism of every cell
• Vitamin C – Essential nutrient found in citrus fruits and other foods
• Pausinystalia johimbe, also known as Yohimbe

Organizational thinking concepts Main articles: Organizational studies and Industrial and organizational psychology

• Attribution theory
• Communication – Act of conveying intended meaning
• Concept testing
• Evaporating Cloud
• Fifth discipline
• Groupthink – Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
• Collective intelligence, also known as Group synergy – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
• Ideas bank – Resource for the posting, exchange, discussion, and polishing of new ideas
• Language interpretation
• Learning organization
• Metaplan
• Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
• Organization development
• Organizational communication – Field of study in communication studies
• Organizational culture – Encompasses values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization
• Organizational ethics
• Organizational learning
• Rhetoric – Art of discourse
• Smart mob – Digital-communication coordinated group
• Theory of constraints – Management paradigm
• Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacy
• Wisdom of crowds – 2004 book by James Surowiecki

Teaching methods and skills Main article: Education

• Active learning – Educational technique
• Classical conditioning – Learning procedure in which biologically potent stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus
• Directed listening and thinking activity
• Discipline – action or inaction that is regulated to be by a particular system of governance
• Learning theory (education) – Theory that describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning
• Mentorship – Guidance relationship
• Operant conditioning – Type of associative learning process
• Problem-based learning – learner centric pedagogy
• Punishment – Imposition of an undesirable or unpleasant outcome
• Reinforcement – Consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior.