Differences
This shows you the differences between two versions of the page.
en:2d_pronouns [2024/06/17 05:34] – created brahmantra | en:2d_pronouns [] () – - () 127.0.0.1 | ||
---|---|---|---|
1: | 1: | ||
- | ====== PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated pro) is a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. | ||
- | |||
- | Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not consider them to form a single class, in view of the variety of functions they perform cross-linguistically. An example of a pronoun is "you {{: | ||
- | |||
- | __For pronouns in other languages :__ | ||
- | |||
- | * [[hi: | ||
- | * [[sa: | ||
- | * [[language: | ||
- | * [[language: | ||
- | * Greek Pronouns | ||
- | * [[language: | ||
- | * [[language: | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== PERSONAL PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | |||
- | Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical person – first person (as I = ), second person (as you = ), or third person (as he = {{: | ||
- | |||
- | ===== Person and number ===== | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | Frequency of personal pronouns in Serbo-Croatian | ||
- | Languages typically have personal pronouns for each of the three grammatical persons: | ||
- | |||
- | first-person pronouns normally refer to the speaker, in the case of the singular (as the English I ), or to the speaker and others, in the case of the plural (as the English we | ||
- | |||
- | second-person pronouns normally refer to the person or persons being addressed (as the English you ); in the plural they may also refer to the person or persons being addressed together with third parties. | ||
- | |||
- | third-person pronouns normally refer to third parties other than the speaker or the person being addressed (as the English he , she , it, they | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ==== FIRST PERSON ==== | ||
- | |||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ^ cases ^ case name ^ SINGULAR ^ DUAL ^ PLURAL | ||
- | |case 1 | Subject | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 2 | Object | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 3 | Dependent Possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | my | our | | ||
- | |case 4 | independent possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | mine | | ||
- | |case 5 | reflexive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | myself | | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ==== SECOND PERSON ==== | ||
- | |||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | ^ cases ^ case name ^ SINGULAR ^ DUAL ^ PLURAL | ||
- | |case 1 | Subject | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 2 | Object | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 3 | Dependent Possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | your | | ||
- | |case 4 | independent possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | yours | | ||
- | |case 5 | reflexive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | yourself | | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ==== THIRD PERSON ==== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | **SINGULAR** | ||
- | ^ cases ^ case name ^ Masculine ^ feminine ^ neuter | ||
- | |case 1 | Subject | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 2 | Object | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 3 | Dependent Possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 4 | independent possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | his' | ||
- | |case 5 | reflexive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | himself | | ||
- | |||
- | **DUAL** | ||
- | //NOTHING IN THIS CATEGORY// | ||
- | |||
- | **PLURAL** | ||
- | ^ cases ^ case name ^ masculine ^ feminine ^ neuter | ||
- | |case 1 | Subject | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 2 | Object | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 3 | Dependent Possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | ||
- | |case 4 | independent possessive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | theirs | | ||
- | |case 5 | reflexive | ||
- | |::: | ::: | themselves | | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ===== Gender ===== | ||
- | |||
- | Personal pronouns, particularly those of the third person, may differ depending on the grammatical gender or natural gender of their antecedent or referent. This occurs in English with the third-person singular | ||
- | |||
- | ====== POSESSIVE PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | [[: | ||
- | |||
- | A possessive or ktetic form (abbreviated poss; from Latin: possessivus; | ||
- | |||
- | Most European languages feature possessive forms associated with personal pronouns, like the English my , mine , your , yours , his ,hers and so on. There are two main ways in which these can be used (and a variety of terminologies for each): | ||
- | |||
- | {{: | ||
- | |||
- | Together with a noun, as in my car, your sisters, his boss. Here the possessive form serves as a possessive determiner. | ||
- | Without an accompanying noun, as in mine is red, I prefer yours, this book is his. A possessive used in this way is called a substantive possessive pronoun, a possessive pronoun or an absolute pronoun. | ||
- | Some languages, including English, also have possessive forms derived from nouns or noun phrases, such as Jane' | ||
- | |||
- | ===== From pronouns ===== | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | It is common for languages to have independent possessive determiners and possessive pronouns corresponding to the personal pronouns of the language. For example, to the English personal pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they, there correspond the respective possessive determiners my, your, his, her, its, our and their, and the (substantival) possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its (rare), ours and theirs. In some instances there is no difference in form between the determiner and the pronoun; examples include the English his (and its), and informal Finnish meidän (meaning either " | ||
- | |||
- | ===== From nouns ===== | ||
- | |||
- | In some languages, possessives are formed from nouns or noun phrases. In English, this is done using the ending -'s, as in Jane' | ||
- | |||
- | ====== REFLEXIVE PRONOUN ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | In general linguistics, | ||
- | |||
- | In the English language specifically, | ||
- | |||
- | In Indo-European languages, has its origins in Proto-Indo-European. In some languages, some distinction exists between normal object and reflexive pronouns, mainly in the third person: whether one says "I like me" or "I like myself", | ||
- | |||
- | A reflexive pronoun is normally used when the object of a sentence is the same as the subject. Each personal pronoun (such as I, you, he and she) has its own reflexive form: | ||
- | |||
- | | I | myself |{{: | ||
- | | you | yourself/ | ||
- | | he | himself | {{: | ||
- | | she | herself | {{: | ||
- | | one | oneself | | | ||
- | | it | itself | ||
- | | we | ourselves | {{: | ||
- | | they | themselves | {{: | ||
- | |||
- | These pronouns can also be used intensively, | ||
- | |||
- | * Jim bought himself a book (reflexive) | ||
- | * Jim himself bought a book (intensive) | ||
- | Intensive pronouns usually appear near and/or before the subject of the sentence. | ||
- | |||
- | Usually after prepositions of locality it is preferred to use a personal object pronoun rather than a reflexive pronoun: | ||
- | |||
- | * Close the door after you. (NOT ... after yourself.) | ||
- | * He was pulling a small cart behind him. (NOT ... behind himself.) | ||
- | * She took her dog with her. (NOT ... with herself.) | ||
- | |||
- | ====== RECIPROCAL PRONOUN ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that indicates a reciprocal relationship. A reciprocal pronoun can be used for one of the participants of a reciprocal construction, | ||
- | |||
- | Reflexive versus reciprocal | ||
- | Reflexive pronouns are used similarly to reciprocal pronouns in the sense that they typically refer back to the subject of the sentence. | ||
- | |||
- | - (1) John and Mary like themselves. | ||
- | - (2) John and Mary like each other. | ||
- | |||
- | The main difference between reflexives, as in example (1), and reciprocal pronouns, as in example (2), is that reflexives are used when the subject acts upon itself. Reciprocals are used when members of a group perform the same action relative to one another. Reciprocal pronouns exist in many languages. They are associated with plural noun phrases and indicate a reciprocal relationship between the members of the plural noun phrase. This means that some member (x) of the plural subject is acting on another member (y) of the subject, and that member (y) is also acting on (x), and that both x and y are members of the group denoted by the antecedent subject. | ||
- | |||
- | Below are examples of reciprocal pronouns and how their relationship to their antecedents contrasts to cases of reflexive pronoun relationships, | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | Demonstratives (abbreviated dem) are words, such as this and that, used to indicate which entities are being referred to and to distinguish those entities from others. They are typically deictic; their meaning depending on a particular frame of reference and cannot be understood without context. Demonstratives are often used in spatial deixis (where the speaker or sometimes the listener are to provide context), but also in intra-discourse reference (including abstract concepts) or anaphora, where the meaning is dependent on something other than the relative physical location of the speaker, for example whether something is currently being said or was said earlier. | ||
- | |||
- | Demonstrative constructions include demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative determiners, | ||
- | |||
- | Distal and proximal demonstratives | ||
- | Many languages, such as English and Chinese, make a two-way distinction between demonstratives. Typically, one set of demonstratives is proximal, indicating objects close to the speaker (English this), and the other series is distal, indicating objects further removed from the speaker (English that). | ||
- | |||
- | Other languages, like Nandi, Hawaiian, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Armenian, Serbo-Croatian, | ||
- | |||
- | Typically, one set of demonstratives is proximal, indicating objects close to the speaker (English this), and the other series is distal, indicating objects further removed from the speaker (English that). | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | | such | {{: | ||
- | | that | {{: | ||
- | | these | {{: | ||
- | | this | {{: | ||
- | | those | {{: | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun which does not have a specific familiar referent. Indefinite pronouns are in contrast to definite pronouns. | ||
- | |||
- | Indefinite pronouns can represent either count nouns or noncount nouns. They often have related forms across these categories: universal (such as everyone, everything), | ||
- | |||
- | Many languages distinguish forms of indefinites used in affirmative contexts from those used in non-affirmative contexts. For instance, English " | ||
- | |||
- | - Distributive pronouns | ||
- | - Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. (Nobody thinks that.) | ||
- | - Impersonal pronouns normally refer to a person, but are not specific as to first, second or third person in the way that the personal pronouns are. (One does not clean one's own windows.) | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | **DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS:** | ||
- | |||
- | A distributive pronoun considers members of a group separately, rather than collectively. | ||
- | They include either, neither and others. | ||
- | |||
- | * "to each his own" — ' | ||
- | * "Men take each other' | ||
- | |||
- | Indefinite pronouns are associated with indefinite determiners of a similar or identical form (such as every, any, all, some). A pronoun can be thought of as replacing a noun phrase, while a determiner introduces a noun phrase and precedes any adjectives that modify the noun. Thus all is an indefinite determiner in "all good boys deserve favour" | ||
- | |||
- | **List of quantifier pronouns** | ||
- | English has the following quantifier pronouns: | ||
- | |||
- | **Uncountable** (thus, with a singular verb form) | ||
- | ^ UNCOUNTABLE | ||
- | | enough | ||
- | | little | ||
- | | less | {{: | ||
- | | much | {{: | ||
- | | more (also countable, plural) | ||
- | | most (also countable, plural) | ||
- | | plenty | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | **Countable, | ||
- | |||
- | one – One has got through. (Often modified or specified, such as in a single one, one of them, etc.) | ||
- | |||
- | **Countable, | ||
- | ^ COUNTABLE | ||
- | | several | ||
- | | few | {{: | ||
- | | fewer | Fewer are going to church these days. | | | ||
- | | many | {{: | ||
- | | more (also uncountable) | ||
- | | most (also uncountable) | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | **Identical Form Quantifiers** | ||
- | |||
- | | all | {{: | ||
- | | both |{{: | ||
- | | another , other , others | {{: | ||
- | | any , anybody , anyone , anything | {{: | ||
- | | either | {{: | ||
- | | each, | ||
- | | neither , nobody , none , no one , nothing | {{: | ||
- | | one | | | ||
- | | some ,somebody ,someone , something | {{: | ||
- | | such | | | ||
- | | every | {{: | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== INTERROGATIVE ====== | ||
- | * [[: | ||
- | |||
- | An interrogative word or question word is a function word used to ask a question, such as what, which, when, where, who, whom, whose, why, whether and how. They are sometimes called wh-words, because in English most of them start with wh- (compare Five Ws). They may be used in both direct questions (Where is he going?) and in indirect questions (I wonder where he is going). In English and various other languages the same forms are also used as relative pronouns in certain relative clauses (The country where he was born) and certain adverb clauses (I go where he goes). | ||
- | |||
- | A particular type of interrogative word is the interrogative particle, which serves to convert a statement into a yes–no question, without having any other meaning. Examples include est-ce que in French, ли li in Russian, czy in Polish, ĉu in Esperanto, কি ki in Bengali, 嗎/吗 ma in Mandarin Chinese, mı/mi in Turkish, pa in Ladin, か ka in Japanese, ko/kö[1] in Finnish and (да) ли (da) li in Serbo-Croatian. Such particles contrast with other interrogative words, which form what are called wh-questions rather than yes–no questions... | ||
- | |||
- | * **In English** | ||
- | * Wh-questions | ||
- | |||
- | // | ||
- | |||
- | ^ interrogative determiner | ||
- | | which | {{: | ||
- | | what | {{: | ||
- | | whose (personal possessive determiner) | ||
- | ^ interrogative pro-form | ||
- | ^ interrogative pronoun | ||
- | | who | {{: | ||
- | | whom | {{: | ||
- | | whose (personal) | ||
- | | what | {{: | ||
- | | which | {{: | ||
- | ^ interrogative pro-adverb | ||
- | | where (location) | ||
- | | whither (signification / goal) | {{: | ||
- | | whence (source) | ||
- | | when (time) | ||
- | | how (manner) | ||
- | | why (reason) | ||
- | | whether | ||
- | | whatsoever (choice between alternatives) | ||
- | |||
- | **Yes-no questions** | ||
- | |||
- | Yes-no questions can begin with an interrogative particle, such as: | ||
- | |||
- | * A conjugation of be (e.g. "Are you hungry?" | ||
- | * A conjugation of do (e.g. "Do you want fries?" | ||
- | * A conjugation of another auxiliary verb, including contractions (e.g. " | ||
- | English questions can also be formed without an interrogative word as the first word, by changing the intonation or punctuation of a statement. For example: " | ||
- | |||
- | ====== RELATIVE PRONOUN ====== | ||
- | [[: | ||
- | |||
- | A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause. It serves the purpose of conjoining modifying information about an antecedent referent. | ||
- | |||
- | An example is the word that in the sentence "This is the house that Jack built." | ||
- | |||
- | Antecedents | ||
- | The element in the main clause that the relative pronoun in the relative clause stands for (house in the above example) is the antecedent of that pronoun. In most cases the antecedent is a nominal (noun or noun phrase), though the pronoun can also refer to a whole proposition, | ||
- | |||
- | In a free relative clause, a relative pronoun has no antecedent: the relative clause itself plays the role of the co-referring element in the main clause. For example, in "I like what you did", what is a relative pronoun, but without an antecedent. The clause what you did itself plays the role of a nominal (the object of like) in the main clause. A relative pronoun used this way is sometimes called a fused relative pronoun, since the antecedent appears fused into the pronoun (what in this example can be regarded as a fusion of that which). | ||
- | |||
- | Role | ||
- | Other arguments can be relativised using relative pronouns: | ||
- | |||
- | * Subject | ||
- | * Hunter is the boy who helped Jessica. | ||
- | * Object complement | ||
- | * Hunter is the boy whom Jessica gave a gift to. | ||
- | * Prepositional object | ||
- | * Jack built the house in which I now live. (Similarly with prepositions and prepositional phrases in general, for example, These are the walls between which Jack ran.) | ||
- | * Possessor | ||
- | * Jack is the boy whose friend built my house. | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== ARCHAIC PRONOUN ====== | ||
- | Archaic personal pronouns | ||
- | ^Person ^ Number ^ Case ^^ | ||
- | ^ ::: ^ ::: ^Subject ^Object ^ | ||
- | ^Second ^ Singular | thou | thee | | ||
- | ^ ::: | ||
- | Though the personal pronouns described above are the contemporary English pronouns, older forms of modern English (as used by Shakespeare, | ||
- | |||
- | ====== KINSHIP ====== | ||
- | SEE : [[: | ||
- | |||
- | In English, kin terms like " | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ====== TABLE OF INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ====== | ||
- | |||
- | ===== MANTRAKSHAR TABLE ===== | ||
- | ^ ^ negation | ||
- | ^ time ^ never | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ place | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ person | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ person | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ posession | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ manner | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ reason | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ thing ^ nothing | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ choice | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ choice | ||
- | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ source | ||
- | | | | | | {{: | ||
- | ^ goal ^ ^ ^ ^ whither | ||
- | | | | | | {{: | ||
- | |||
- | ===== BLISSYMBOLS TABLE ===== | ||
- | ^ ^negation ^some ^any ^question ^every/ | ||
- | |time |never |sometimes |anytime |when |everytime | | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |place |nowhere|somewhere |anywhere |wherever |everywhere | | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |person |nobody |somebody |anybody |who |everybody | | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |person |no one/ | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |posession |nobody' | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |manner |noway |somehow/ | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |reason |no reason |some reason |any reason |why |every reason | | ||
- | | ::: | ||
- | |thing |nothing |something |anything |which |everything | | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |choice |neither |another |either/ | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |choice |nor |other |or |what |both | | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |source | | | |whence / | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |goal | | | |whither/ | ||
- | |::: | ||
- | |condition | | ||
- | |::: | | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | ^ ever ^ whereever | whatever/ | ||
- | | for what | for whom | for who | | ||
- | | from where | from whom | from who | | ||
- | | to where | to whom | to who | | ||
- | | since when | till when | | ||
- | | | by whom | by who | | ||
- | | in what | | ||
- | | till where | | ||
- | | why because | | ||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||
- | |||